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In the late-19th century, infant mortality rates are high across class and race.

1890s

CHIL
EPD
PH
RHRR

In New York City, the infant mortality rate is over 130 per 1,000 live births, and over 150 per 1,000 live births in Massachusetts.

Digestive disturbances and diarrheal diseases rank high among the leading causes of infant deaths. Infant formula companies begin to use this as a marketing strategy, advocating for manufactured breast milk as the answer. They also launch campaigns against wet nurses, often directly or indirectly identifying wet nurses as immigrant, Black, and white women living in poverty.